Seroprevalence and risk factors associated with bovine herpesvirus 1 (BHV-1) infection in dairy cattle in southern and central Ethiopia.

Bovine herpesvirus 1 (BHV-1) is an important pathogen of cattle with a worldwide distribution. It occurs as a subclinical, mild or severe disease. The clinical signs may vary widely with respiratory, genital, ocular and encephalomyelitis form. This cross-sectional study was carried out between May 2019 and March 2020 with the aim to estimate the seroprevalence of bovine herpesvirus 1 (BHV-1) and to identify related potential risk factors in dairy cattle in central and southern Ethiopia. A total of 954 serum samples were obtained from randomly selected dairy cattle in 98 herds. The samples were collected from animals over 6 months old and tested using a BHV-1 antibody blocking enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (b-ELISA). The study showed that the animal- and herd-level seroprevalence of BHV-1 was 30.0 % (95 % CI: 21.7, 39.9) and 75.5 % (95 % CI: 65.9, 83.1), respectively. Multiple logistic regression model demonstrated that adult animals (> 2.5 years) (OR = 2.4, 95 % CI: 1.1, 5.5) had higher seroprevalence of BHV-1 compared to their counterparts (p < 0.05). Cattle in farms using artificial insemination (AI), and both AI and bulls had a 3.9 (95 % CI: 1.2, 13.3) and 5.1 (95 % CI: 1.8, 14.8) odds of being seropositive, respectively, compared to farms using bulls only. Arrangement of animals in a tail-to-tail fashion appeared to be protective against BHV-1 infection (p < 0.05). However, source of the animal was not associated with BHV-1 serostatus (p > 0.05). The animal- and herd-level prevalence recorded in our study confirms that BHV-1 infection is widespread and remains endemic in dairy cattle of central and southern Ethiopia.

Brucellosis in Ethiopia: A comprehensive review of literature from the year 2000-2020 and the way forward.

Brucellosis is a zoonotic disease of considerable economic and public health significance globally. Despite the limited bacteriological evidence, a large number of serological works revealed that it is prevalent both in livestock and humans in Ethiopia. The current comprehensive review was carried out to provide apparent pooled seroprevalence (APS) estimates at individual animal and herd levels in livestock, and identify factors causing variability between studies conducted over the last two decades, show the spatial distribution, as well as summarizes Brucella species reported from livestock. It also provides APS of brucellosis in humans and evaluates the public health awareness of zoonotic brucellosis. In this review, systematic and synthetic review approaches were followed to summarize the available information. For the systematic review and meta-analysis, articles were selected based on predefined criteria. Data extracted from these articles were analysed using meta-analytical approaches to provide APS estimates and in-between study variations for humans and all livestock species considered. Sensitivity analyses and bias assessments were conducted using influence plot analysis and, Egger's and Begg's statistics along with funnel plots, respectively. Synthetic review approaches were used to summarize data on isolates and public health awareness. Pooled seroprevalence estimate of brucellosis at national level was 2.6% (95% CI: 2.2-3.0) in cattle, 4% (95% CI: 3.1-5.1) in goats, 3% (95% CI: 2.3-3.9) in sheep and 3% (95% CI: 2.4-3.7) in camels. At a herd level, 16.3% (95% CI: 12.9-20.5) of cattle, 12.1% (7.1-19.9) of goat, 13.3% (7.6-22.1) of sheep and 19.7% (13.8-27.4) of camel herds in the country had at least one seropositive animal. Cattle in the pastoral/agropastoral production systems had significantly higher (p < .05) APS compared to mixed crop-livestock and urban/peri-urban dairy production systems. Pooled seroprevalence of brucellosis in small ruminants (8.3%, 95% CI: 6.3-10.8) and camels (4.4%, 95% CI: 3.5-5.6) in Afar were significantly higher (p < .05) than in other regions. Reports conducted using ELISA and serial Rose Bengal plate test (RBPT)-ELISA had higher (p < .05) APS estimates than serial RBPT and complement fixation test. Brucella melitensis and B. abortus were reported from goats and cattle, respectively, from three available reports. The APS of brucellosis in humans was 5% (95% CI: 3.3-7.3). Public awareness of brucellosis was low (18.4%), while, practices that expose humans to Brucella infection were high. Scenario-based control interventions on regions and production systems using one health approach are suggested.

Seroprevalence and association of bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) serostatus with reproductive problems in dairy cattle in central and southern Ethiopia.

Bovine viral diarrhea (BVD) is an economically important cattle disease with worldwide distribution and characterized mainly by suboptimal fertility in the affected herds. The objectives of this study were to estimate the seroprevalence of BVDV within dairy cattle, to identify potential risk factors, and to assess the association with occurrence of reproductive problems. Sera (n = 954) collected from dairy cattle from 98 herds in southern and central Ethiopia were tested for BVDV antibodies using a commercial ELISA. Among screened sera samples, 20.9% (95% CI, 18.4, 23.6) tested positive to BVDV antibodies. The herd prevalence was 50% (95% CI, 40.1, 59.9) and the intra-herd prevalence ranged between 2.6 and 100% (mean = 31.4%) in positive herds. Geographic region, herd size, and animal arrangement in the farm had significant association with serostatus (p < 0.05). Cattle from southern Ethiopia and herds of large size had 2.8 (95% CI, 1.9, 4.2) and 2.6 (95% CI, 1.5, 4.6) times higher odds of being seropositive compared to their counterparts, respectively. Serostatus to BVDV was associated with history of anestrus, repeat breeding (RB), mastitis, and extended calving interval (CI) (p < 0.05). Animals with history of extended CI and mastitis were 1.7 (95% CI, 1.0, 2.7) and 2.2 (95% CI, 1.5, 3.2) times more likely to be seropositive compared with those with normal CI and no history of mastitis, respectively. On the other hand, animals with history of anestrus and RB were less likely to be seropositive to BVDV compared to cattle with no such history. Sera from 26 selected cattle were also examined using reverse transcription (RT)-PCR for detection of BVDV RNA; however, all samples tested were negative for the presence of BVDV nucleic acid. Our study highlights the variation in BVDV status within Ethiopian dairy herds, and association with some important reproductive performance traits and potential risk factors.

Tuberculosis in small ruminants and dromedary camels in Ethiopia: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

Tuberculosis (TB) is a chronic infectious disease of livestock with serious economic and public health impact in Ethiopia. The disease is reported from cattle, small ruminants and dromedary camels in the country. However, there is no organized summary report on the magnitude and distribution pattern of TB in small ruminants and dromedary camels, unlike that of bovine TB. Consequent to this gap, this review was organized to provide pooled prevalence estimates, and examine level of heterogeneity among studies at national level. In addition, it attempts to illustrate the spatial distribution patterns along the three livestock species based on available reports. Tuberculosis articles on the aforesaid livestock species were searched online using PubMed, CAB direct, Web of Science and AJOL databases. Eighteen articles published from January 2000 to May 15, 2020, written in the English language that fulfill the selection quality criteria were considered for the review. Altogether, 50 district based observational studies conducted on 10,371 goats, 6262 dromedary camels, and 1457 sheep were used for analysis. Accordingly, the pooled prevalence estimates of TB, in a random effect model were 2.3 % (95 % CI: 1.7, 3.1) for goats, 0.8 % (95 % CI: 0.5, 1.4) for sheep and 8.2 % (95 % CI: 6.6, 10.2) for dromedary camels. The subgroup analysis revealed presence of statistically significant differences (p < 0.001) in pooled prevalence estimates among the three species. In multivariable meta-regression model, diagnostic methods used for screening (single intra-dermal comparative cervical tuberculin test (SICCTT)> 2mm, SICCTT > 4mm and detailed postmortem inspection) were the only predictors identified to show statistically significant difference (p<0.001) and explained 68.6 % of the explainable heterogeneity (R2 =0.686) in goat TB studies. In general, study reports on small ruminant and dromedary camel TB are limited throughout the country. The most significant data gaps were in Gambella, and Benshangul-Gumuz regional states, where no single report could be retrieved on small ruminant TB. Limitation of study reports and lack of comparable categories constrained further investigation on other predictors in sheep and camel studies. Thus, the authors would like to emphasize the need for more representative studies in the species of concern in all regions of the country. Meanwhile, the relatively higher proportion of TB in dromedary camels demands special attention in arid and semiarid parts of the country, as it is the leading livestock species on which agropastoralist and pastoralists livelihoods depend.

Cryptosporidium and Giardia infections in dairy calves in southern Ethiopia.

Giardia and Cryptosporidium are the most common enteric protozoan parasites causing diarrhea in humans and animals worldwide. This study was conducted with the objectives of estimating prevalence and identifying risk factors for Cryptosporidium and Giardia infections in dairy calves in selected districts of southern Ethiopia. Fecal samples (n = 330) were collected from calves in 92 farms. The monoclonal antibody-based commercial direct immunofluorescent kit was used to test the samples for Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts. A questionnaire survey was also administered to collect data on potential risk factors of infections. The results showed a farm-level prevalence of 69.6% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 59.1-78.7%) for Cryptosporidium and 38.04% (95% CI: 28.1-48.8%) for Giardia. Likewise, an overall animal level prevalence of 13.0% (95% CI: 9.6-17.2%) for Cryptosporidium and 9.7% (95% CI: 6.7-13.4%) for Giardia was found. At the farm level, multivariate logistic regression model showed that calves in smallholder farms were 5.3 times more likely to shed Cryptosporidium oocysts than calves in commercial farms (p=0.019). However, in case of Giardia, calves in commercial farms were 5.5 times more likely to shed cysts than calves in smallholder farms (p=0.037). Calves with diarrhea were nearly three times more likely to be positive for Cryptosporidium oocysts than those with normal feces (p=0.027). At the animal level, larger farms and younger calves were associated with Giardia cysts shedding, while larger herd size and lose fecal consistency were associated with Cryptosporidium oocysts shedding. Giardia and Cryptosporidium infection are endemic in the studied dairy farms. Therefore, detailed molecular epidemiological studies are essential to identify the role of domestic animals in the transmission of infections to humans and vice versa, and to determine the best options for prevention and control of cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis.

Seroprevalence and factors associated with bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) infection in dairy cattle in three milksheds in Ethiopia.

This work was conducted to estimate the seroprevalence, to identify potential factors that influence seroprevalence of bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV), and to investigate the association between BVDV serostatus and occurrence of reproductive disorders in dairy cattle in three milksheds in Ethiopia. A total of 1379 serum samples were obtained from cattle randomly selected from 149 herds from three milksheds representing central, southern, and western Ethiopia. Sera samples were examined for bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) antibodies using commercial competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kit. Logistic regression analysis was employed to investigate associations between risk factors and the risk of BVDV seroprevalence, and BVDV serostatus and reproductive disorders. Seroreaction to BVDV antigens was detected in 32.6% of the 1379 cattle and 69.8% of the 149 herds sampled. Factors associated with BVDV seroplevalence were age, breed, and herd size (P < 0.05). Adult cattle ≥ 18 months old had 2.1 (95% CI 1.5, 3.1) times the odds of BVDV seroreaction than younger cattle. Holstein-Friesian (HF) local crosses (OR = 2.1, 95% CI 1.3, 3.4) and HFs (OR = 1.3, 95% CI 0.9, 1.9) were more likely to be seropositive than Jersey and the odds of seropositivity in cattle in large herds with 11 or more animals were higher (OR = 1.8, 95% CI 1.3, 2.5) than the odds of BVDV seropositivity in smaller herds. Seroprevalence was not associated with geographical region (P > 0.05). Risk of reproductive disorders was not affected by BVDV serostatus, except for repeat breeding (P > 0.05). The present study demonstrated that BVDV has wide distribution in the country being detected in all the 15 conurbations and 69.8% of herds involved in the study.

The serostatus of Brucella spp., Chlamydia abortus, Coxiella burnetii and Neospora caninum in cattle in three cantons in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

BACKGROUND: Dairy production in Bosnia and Herzegovina exhibits limited productivity, which may partly, be explained by extensive reproductive problems of non-infectious and infectious origin. Brucella spp., Chlamydia abortus, Coxiella burnetii and Neospora caninum are common infectious causes of decreased reproductive outcomes in cattle worldwide. Little is, however, known about the disease status of herds with reduced reproductive performances. A cross-sectional study was designed to document the status of these pathogens in dairy cattle in Bosnia and Herzegovina. A total of 1970 serum samples were collected from cattle in farms located in three cantons (regions). Enzyme linked immunosorbent assays were used to screen for seropositivity against four selected pathogens. RESULTS: The overall seroprevalence was estimated at both the herd level and at individual level for each pathogen. At the individual animal level, the prevalence for C. abortus, C. burnetii, N. caninum and Brucella spp. was 52.1% (95% CI: 41.2-62.7), 8.8% (95% CI: 5.3-14.2), 9.2% (95% CI: 6.0-12.3 and 0.2% (95% CI: 0.1-0.5), respectively. The corresponding estimates for herd level were 87.9% (95% CI: 82.6-91.8), 19.6% (95% CI: 14.6-25.8), 35.2% (95% CI: 28.8-42.1), and 1.5% (95% CI: 0.5-4.6). A substantial overlap was observed in the presence of N. caninum, C. abortus and C. burnetii at individual and herd level. CONCLUSION: Our study demonstrated a high level of antibodies to Chlamydia abortus. Considering the association of this agent with reproductive disorders in cattle, future studies should be directed to the epidemiological traits of this infection. Additionally, the relatively high levels of exposure to C. burnetii and N. caninum found in this study highlights the need for targeted control of infectious causes of reproductive disorders in dairy cattle of the studied areas. Given the low seroprevalence, Brucella spp. does not seem to represent a problem in the reproductive health of cattle in the studied areas.

Bovine herpesvirus-1 in three major milk sheds of Ethiopia: Serostatus and association with reproductive disorders in dairy cattle.

Bovine herpesvirus-1 (BHV-1) causes infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR), and infectious pustular vulvovaginitis (IPV) in cows and infectious pustular balanopostitis (IPB) in bulls worldwide. Infection of seronegative cattle with BHV-1 leads to abortion, retention of fetal membranes, increased service per conception, metritis and oophoritis. As part of an ongoing study on infectious causes of reproductive disorders in Ethiopia, this investigation aims at assessing the role of BHV-1 in the disorders and the risk factors affecting its seroprevalence. A cross-sectional study was conducted on a total of 1379 randomly selected dairy cattle from 149 herds. These dairy cattle were sampled from milks sheds of central (n = 555), western (n = 195) and southern (n = 629) Ethiopia. Blocking enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (B-ELISA) was applied to detect antibodies specific to BHV-1. Additionally, a semi-structured questionnaire was administered and farm records were assessed to capture potential risk factors associated with BHV-1 seropositivity. Univariable and multivariable random-effects logistic regression analyses were used to assess potential risk factors associated with BHV-1 serostatus. Model fitness and reliability were assessed using the Hosmer and Lemeshow method and the receiver operating curve (ROC) respectively. An overall herd level BHV-1 seroprevalence of 81.8% (95% confidence interval (CI): 74.7-87.7%) and individual animal level seroprevalence of 41.0% (95% CI: 38.4-43.7%) were found. In a random-effects multivariable logistic regression model, the seroprevalence of BHV-1 exposure was higher in dairy cattle from breeding (Odds ratio [OR] = 1.3; p = 0.036) than in commercial (OR = 0.9; p = 0.137) and small-holder farms. Geographically, the prevalence was higher in western (OR = 1.4; p < 0.001) and southern Ethiopia (OR = 1.2; p < 0.001) than in central regions. BHV-1 seropositive cows had higher (p < 0.05) odds of clinical reproductive disorders including abortion, retained fetal membranes, stillbirth, birth of weak calf and metritis compared to seronegative cows. Thus, it is suggested that BHV-1 should be considered as differential diagnosis among improved dairy cattle herds with reproductive disorders in Ethiopia.

Lungworm infection in small ruminants in Ethiopia: Systematic review and meta-analysis.

Lungworms are important parasitic nematodes of small ruminants that colonize the lower respiratory tract and cause high morbidity and economic loss throughout the world. This systematic review was conducted with the aim of estimating the pooled prevalence of lungworm infection in small ruminants in Ethiopia. Besides, it examines the predictors thought to be responsible for heterogeneity noted between the reports. The search databases used were PubMed, CAB direct, AJOL and Web of science. Eligible studies were selected based on predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria. Thirty two studies published between 2000 and 2016 were found eligible and data were generated on 14,257 small ruminants (12,310 sheep and 1947 goats). Predictors including the study area, type of small ruminants affected, parasitic species involved, a diagnostic test used, study design, management systems, breed, agroecology, and year article published were used as milestone of data extraction. The statistical tool employed were meta-analysis, univariable and multivariable meta-regression and Egger's and begg's statistics for sensitivity analysis. Accordingly, the estimated pooled prevalence of lung worm infection in small ruminants was 40.8% (95% CI: 36.1, 45.6) with a very high heterogeneity between the study reports (I2 = 96.5%). However, diagnostic test used and administrative States were the only two predictors identified to explain 15.5% of the explainable heterogeneity (R2 = 0.1545, tau2 unexplained = 0.6032, tau2 total = 0.7135) noted between studies. The reviewed studies showed that three genera of lungworms, namely Dictyocaulus filaria, Mullerius capillaris and Protostrogylus rufescens were prevalent both in sheep and goats in Ethiopia. Mixed infection with two or three species was reported in 4.4 to 48.6% of the total infected animals. Indeed this review is informative and provides a better picture on lungworm infection in Ethiopia; however, it is not exhaustively detailed as there was lack of clear data on the role of some important factors like age, flock size, management system and seasonal variation on lungworm infection. Thus, thorough epidemiological studies including all seasons are required for formulation of meaning full control strategies.

Serological evidence of Bovine herpesvirus-1, Bovine Viral Diarrhea virus and Schmallenberg virus infections in relation to reproductive disorders in dairy cattle in Ethiopia.

Reproductive disorders in dairy cattle have been noted to be common in urban and peri-urban dairy production system in Ethiopia. The available reports on the causes of these disorders, however, are not conclusive. A case-control study was designed to investigate the possible association of major reproductive disorders in dairy cattle with exposure status to bovine herpesvirus-1 (BHV-1), bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) and Schmallenberg virus (SBV). Cows with history of abortion/stillbirth were considered as cases (n=204) while, those cows with no such history were taken as control (n=359). The serological screening tests used for all the three viruses were blocking enzyme linked immunosorbent assays (B-ELISAs). Of the total 563 samples tested 58.4%, 43.8% and 32.9% were positive for SBV, BHV-1 and BVDV, respectively. Significant difference between cases and controls were noted for SBV (p=0.026) and BHV-1 exposures (p<0.001). The difference noted for BVDV serostatus was not significant (p>0.05). The highest proportion (28.9%) of concurrent exposures was noted for BHV-1 and SBV, followed by SBV and BVDV (21.5%) and BHV-1 and BVDV (20.2%). Evidence of exposures to all the three viruses were detected in 14.4% of the animals. However, significant difference between cases (39.7%) and controls (22.9%) among cattle with multiple sero-positivity was noted only for BHV-1 and SBV (p<0.001). Proportion of uterine infection (p=0.002) and fetal membrane retention (p=0.005) increased in BHV-1 seropositive animals, while repeat breeding was common (p=0.034) among BVDV exposed ones. Seropositive animals to any of the three viruses were detected in all sampled areas and the proportion of cattle with BHV-1 and SBV exposure history had a higher risk to at least one type of the reproductive disorders mentioned compared to the corresponding sero-negative groups.

Seroprevalence of Schmallenberg virus in dairy cattle in Ethiopia.

Schmallenberg virus (SBV) is a recently identified member of the genus Orthobunyavirus of the family Bunyaviridae. It is an arbovirus transmitted by different members of Culicoides spp of biting midges. The virus is more recognized for its effect on reproductive disorders in ruminants characterised by abortion, stillbirth and birth of congenitally defective newborns with hydranencephaly-arthrogryposis syndrome. The current study was undertaken with the objectives of exploring the presence of SBV exposure and identification of factors affecting its distribution among dairy cattle in Ethiopia. A cross-sectional study was conducted on 1379 dairy cattle sampled from 149 dairy herds in central, southern and western Ethiopia during September 2011 to May 2012. Serum samples were examined using competitive enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (cELISA). Data on hypothesised risk factors were collected from farm records where available and semi-structured questionnaire-based interview. The apparent seroprevalence of exposure to SBV was 56.6% (95% confidence interval (CI): 53.9-59.3). True prevalence adjusted for sensitivity and specificity of the cELISA kit used was 58.3% (95% CI 55.7-60.9). Among the sampled herds, 82.6% (95% CI: 75.5-88.3) had at least one seropositive animal. Seropositive cattle were found in all of the 15 conurbations studied. Adult dairy cows [odds ratio (OR)=1.6] were more commonly affected than young heifers. Dairy cattle kept in commercial (OR=1.6) and breeding farms (OR=3.5) and Midland agroecology (OR=2.5) showed statistically significant seroconversion than cattle kept under small-holder dairy farms and Highland agroecology respectively (p<0.05). Reproductive disorders including abortion, retention of the fetal membranes, and metritis were associated with serostatus of SBV. In conclusion, the seroprevalence of SBV is high and widely distributed in the studied parts of Ethiopia. This being the first study of its kind on SBV in Ethiopia, further longitudinal studies on isolation of the virus and its impact on reproductive disorders are recommended.

Bovine tuberculosis in Ethiopia: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

Bovine tuberculosis (bTB) is a known endemic disease of cattle in Ethiopia; however, there is lack of a comprehensive information on the status and distribution of the disease in the country. The objectives of this systematic review and meta-analysis were to provide a pooled prevalence estimate of bTB at a national level, assess the level of in-between variance among study reports and illustrate the spatial distribution pattern in the country. Articles published on bTB from January 2000 to December, 2016 in English language were included in the review. Pubmed, CAB direct, AJOL and Web of Science were the databases used in electronic search. A total of 127 articles were retrieved from online sources, of which 56 articles were selected for data extraction based on the specified inclusion criteria. From these selected published articles, 114 animal level data were extracted for quantitative analysis. A pooled prevalence estimate of bovine tuberculosis in Ethiopia was found to be 5.8% (95% CI: 4.5, 7.5). In a multivariable meta-regression analysis, breed and production system explained 40.9% of the explainable proportion of the in-between study variance computed. The prevalence of bovine tuberculosis in Holstein-Friesians, 21.6% (95% CI: 14.7-30.7), was higher than the prevalence in local zebus 4.1 (95% CI: 3.4-4.9). Cattle kept under intensive and semi-intensive production systems had higher prevalence, 16.6% (95% CI: 12.4-21.6), of bTB than those kept in extensive livestock production system, 4.6 (95% CI: 3.4-6.2). Bovine tuberculosis is widely distributed across major livestock producing regions of Ethiopia. However, no valid data could be retrieved from Benishanul-Gumuz, Harari and Dire Dawa. Data obtained on bTB from Somali and Gambella regional states are also few and further studies are suggested in these regions. In conclusion, this review showed that bTB in cattle in Ethiopia is widespread with high prevalence in intensive and semi-intensive management systsems that keep exotic breeds and their crosses in urban and peri-urban areas. Thus, it is suggested that the design and implementation of bTB control strategies in Ethiopia should prioritize these hotspots in order to reduce the impact of the disease on the growing dairy sector.

Major vectors and vector-borne diseases in small ruminants in Ethiopia: A systematic review.

Vector-borne diseases are among major health constraints of small ruminant in Ethiopia. While various studies on single vector-borne diseases or presence of vectors have been conducted, no summarized evidence is available on the occurrence of these diseases and the related vectors. This systematic literature review provides a comprehensive summary on major vectors and vector-borne diseases in small ruminants in Ethiopia. Search for published and unpublished literature was conducted between 8th of January and 25th of June 2015. The search was both manual and electronic. The databases used in electronic search were PubMed, Web of Science, CAB Direct and AJOL. For most of the vector-borne diseases, the summary was limited to narrative synthesis due to lack of sufficient data. Meta-analysis was computed for trypanosomosis and dermatophilosis while meta-regression and sensitivity analysis was done only for trypanososmosis due to lack of sufficient reports on dermatophilosis. Owing emphasis to their vector role, ticks and flies were summarized narratively at genera/species level. In line with inclusion criteria, out of 106 initially identified research reports 43 peer-reviewed articles passed the quality assessment. Data on 7 vector-borne diseases were extracted at species and region level from each source. Accordingly, the pooled prevalence estimate of trypanosomosis was 3.7% with 95% confidence interval (CI) 2.8, 4.9), while that of dermatophilosis was 3.1% (95% CI: 1.6, 6.0). The in-between study variance noted for trypanosomosis was statistically significant (p<0.05). Among the three covariates considered for meta-regression, only one (species) fitted the final model significantly (p<0.05) and explained 65.44% of the between studies variance (R2). The prevalence in sheep (5.5%) increased nearly by 34% compared to goats (2.9%). The parasitic presence in blood was documented for babesiosis (3.7% in goats); and anaplasmosis (3.9% in sheep). Serological evidence was retrieved for bluetongue ranging from 34.1% to 46.67% in sheep, and coxiellosis was 10.4% in goats. There was also molecular evidence on the presence of theileriosis in sheep (93%, n=160) and goats (1.9%, n=265). Regarding vectors of veterinary importance, 14 species of ticks in five genera, four species of Glossina and 4 genera of biting flies were reported. Despite the evidence on presence of various vectors including ticks, flies, mosquitoes and midges, studies on vector-borne diseases in Ethiopia are surprisingly rare, especially considering risks related to climate change, which is likely to affect distribution of vectors. Thus better evidence on the current situation is urgently needed in order to prevent spread and to model future distribution scenarios.

Bovine mastitis: prevalence, risk factors and isolation of Staphylococcus aureus in dairy herds at Hawassa milk shed, South Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Mastitis is a disease of major economic importance in dairy industry worldwide. It is of particular concern in developing countries like Ethiopia, where milk and milk products are scarce. The objectives of the study were to estimate the prevalence of mastitis, identify the cow-and herd-level potential risk factors and isolate Staphylococcus aureus, one of etiological agents for contagious mastitis, from cows positive for mastitis. A total of 529 lactating cows selected randomly from 95 herds were screened by California mastitis test (CMT) for sub-clinical mastitis. Also 172 milk samples collected from CMT positive cows were cultured for isolation of S. aureus. RESULTS: Based on CMT result and clinical examination, the prevalence of mastitis at herd-level was 74.7% (95% CI: 64.5, 82.8). The corresponding cow-level prevalence was 62.6% (95% CI: 58.3, 66.7), of which 59.2 and 3.4% were sub-clinical and clinical mastitis cases, respectively. S. aureus was isolated from 51.2% of the milk samples cultured and 73.2% of the herds affected with mastitis. In the multivariable logistic regression model, the herd-level factors significantly associated (p < 0.05) with the presence of mastitis were herd size, bedding material, and milking mastitic cows last, while at cow-level, breed, parity, stage of lactation, udder and leg hygiene, and teat end shape were noted to have a significant effect on mastitis occurrence. CONCLUSION: The very high prevalence of mastitis, more importantly the sub-clinical one, in the herds examined revealed the huge potential economic loss the sector suffers. Perhaps this was attributed to lack of implementation of the routine mastitis prevention and control practices by all of the herd owners. The findings of this study warrants the need for strategic approach including dairy extension that focus on enhancing dairy farmers' awareness and practice of hygienic milking, regular screening for sub-clinical mastitis, dry cow therapy and culling of chronically infected cows.

Systematic review and meta-analysis of metacestodes prevalence in small ruminants in Ethiopia.

Metacestodes, the larval stages of canid cestode parasites, are among the causes of morbidity, mortality and financial losses in small ruminants in Ethiopia as a result of organ and carcass condemnation at slaughter. Several studies have been conducted over the years; however, these studies often had limited scope and coverage. This systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted to collate the information so far available in order to provide a pooled prevalence estimate at national level and identify potential predictors. Published and grey literature written in English and Amharic in the period from, 1st of January 1990 to June 25, 2015 were searched from electronic databases and repositories of academic and research institutions. Relevant animal level data on 67,743 small ruminants was extracted from 23 published articles and one master's thesis resulting altogether in 86 animal level reports that conformed to predefined criteria. The dataset was analyzed using a meta-analytical approach. The pooled prevalence estimate computed for metacestodes infection was 11.8% with a 95% confidence interval (CI) of 9.1, 15.4. The highest prevalence estimate 31.2% (95% CI: 23.1, 40.9) was found for Cysticercus tenuicollis (Taenia hydatigena) followed by cystic echinococcosis (Echinococcus granulosus) 8.8% (95% CI: 5.8, 13.1), Cysticercus ovis (Taenia ovis) 4.9% (95% CI: 2.9, 9.4) and Coenurus cerebralis (Taenia multiceps) 4.6% (95% CI: 1.6, 12.2). Among the predictors considered for heterogeneity analysis only sample size and metacestode type fitted the final multivariable meta-regression model and explained 26.3% of the explainable heterogeneity between studies (p<0.05). The prevalence was noted to decrease with increasing sample size. No significant difference in prevalence was observed between sheep and goats (p>0.05). In conclusion, this review showed a widespread occurrence of metacestodes in small ruminants in Ethiopia. Thus, a holistic approach to break the life cycle of these parasitic stages is suggested, including regulatory interventions that encourage dog owners to keep their dogs confined and prevent backyard slaughter and proper management of abattoir waste disposal.

Gastrointestinal nematode infection in small ruminants in Ethiopia: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

Gastrointestinal (GI) nematode infections are a major health challenge affecting productive and reproductive performance of sheep and goats in Ethiopia. However, there is no comprehensive summary on the occurrence and distribution of the infection at national level. This systematic review provides pooled prevalence estimates and assesses potential predictors of the nematode infections in small ruminants, i.e. helpful in planning interventions or control strategies. The review used 50 animal level datasets retrieved from 24 manuscripts. The studies used data collected from 9407 sheep and 3478 goats. A meta-analytical approach was employed to analyze Effect size (ES). The reported GI nematodes represented eleven genera affecting sheep and goats including: Haemonchus, Trichostrongylus, Teladorsagia/Ostertagia, Strongyloides, Bunostomum, Nematodirus, Chabertia, Trichuris, Cooperia, Skrjabinema and Oesophagostomum. The GI nematodes pooled prevalence estimate in the random effect model was 75.8% (95% CI: 69.6, 80.8). The subgroup analysis revealed significant (p<0.05) differences in the prevalence between different regions and type of diagnostic methods used. 'Postmortem technique' and 'eastern part of the country' were associated with higher GI nematode prevalence and accounted for 68.1% of the between studies heterogeneity. In light of the high parasitic prevalence in all agro-ecologies, the need for strategic intervention is recommended. Meanwhile, data need to be generated for some of the regions where dependable survey reports are lacking.

A meta-analysis of contagious caprine pleuropneumonia (CCPP) in Ethiopia.

This systematic literature review was initiated due to lack of comprehensive information on the status and distribution of contagious caprine pleuropneumonia (CCPP) in Ethiopia. The objectives of the review were thus to provide a pooled prevalence estimate of CCPP in the country and asses the level of in between study variance among the available reports. Manual and electronic search was conducted between 8th of January and 25th of June 2015. A total of twelve published articles and one MSc thesis was retrieved from 19 initially identified studies. Twenty five animal level datasets were extracted at regional level considering some hypothesized predictors. The retrieved data were summarized in a meta-analytical approach. Accordingly, the pooled prevalence estimate of CCPP was 25.7% (95% CI:20.9,31.0). The inverse variance square (I(2)) that explains the variation in effect size attributed to reports true heterogeneity was 95.7%.The sub-group analysis was also computed for assumed predictors including, age, sex, type of study population, production systems and regional states. Among these predictors, study population type revealed statistically significant difference (P<0.05). Accordingly, the prevalence estimate for samples collected at abattoir was 39.2%, while that of samples collected at field level was 22.4%. In the final model, type of study population fitted the multivariable meta-regression model accounting for 22.87% of the explainable proportion of heterogeneity among the presumed predictors. Evidence on isolation and confirmation of Mycoplasma capricolum subspp. capripneumonie in the country was obtained from five regional states. In conclusion, it is recommended to further investigate facilities related with transportation and collection premises along with potential role of sheep in the epidemiology of CCPP. Finally, the review emphasizes the need for monitoring the ongoing CCPP control intervention and introduces amendments based on the findings. Besides more surveys are needed in some of the regions where no or few valid data was available.

Mange mite infestation in small ruminants in Ethiopia: Systematic review and meta-analysis.

Mange mites are economically important ectoparasites of sheep and goats responsible for rejection or downgrading of skins in tanneries or leather industries in Ethiopia. The objective of this systematic review was to compute the pooled prevalence estimate and identify factors influencing mange mite prevalence in sheep and goats at national level based on the available research evidence. Articles on mange mite infestation of small ruminants in Ethiopia were searched in PubMed, Web of Science, Google scholar and African journals on-line. The review was based on 18 cross-sectional studies carried out between 2003 and 2015 in four administrative states of Ethiopia. Accordingly, the pooled prevalence estimate in a random effects meta-analysis was estimated to be 4.4% (95% CI 3.0, 6.3) although there were evidence of a substantial amount of between-study variance (I(2)=98.4%). In subgroup and multivariable meta-regression analyses, animal species, agro-ecology and administrative state were found to have significant effect on the prevalence estimate (P<0.05) and explained 32.87% of the explainable proportion of the heterogeneity noted between studies The prevalence was found to be higher in goats in lowland agro-ecology. Region wise the highest estimate was calculated for Amhara (6.4%) followed by Oromia (4.7%), Tigray (3.6%) and Southern Nations, Nationalities and People Region (SNNPR) (3.1%). Significant difference was noted between Amhara and SNNPR. The study further revealed that mites of the genus Sarcoptes, Demodex and Psoroptes are the most prevalent mites infesting small ruminants in Ethiopia. Valid studies were lacking from five regional states. As some of these regions are known for their large small ruminant population, further studies are warranted to produce better picture of the infestation at a national level. Meanwhile, the need for monitoring the ongoing control intervention is suggested.

Meta-analysis of Brucella seroprevalence in dairy cattle of Ethiopia.

This meta-analysis estimates a single-group summary (effect size) for seroprevalence of Brucella spp. exposure in dairy cattle of Ethiopia. It also attempts to identify study-level variables that could explain the variation in apparent seroprevalence. The literature search was restricted to studies published in English language from January 2000 to December 2013. A template was designed to retrieve the most biologically plausible and consistent variables from the articles. A total of 29 published papers containing 40 animal-level studies were used in the analyses. The single-group summary of Brucella seroprevalence in cattle was estimated to reach 3.3 % with 95 % confidence interval (CI) (2.6-4.2 %). Of all the variables considered, region was the only specific factor identified to explain about 20 % of between-study variation. Accordingly, the region-based meta-analysis forest plot revealed the highest prevalence in central Ethiopia followed by southern part. The lowest prevalence estimate was observed in the western part of the country. The visual inspection of the funnel plot demonstrated the presence of possible publication bias which might dictate shortage of studies with higher prevalences or variance inflation due to infectiousness of Brucella. In conclusion, the quantitative review showed the seroprevalence to be low but widely distributed. More importantly, the review underscores the need for isolation and characterization of the circulating Brucella spp. to capture the type of Brucella spp. involved and its distribution in cattle in Ethiopia.

Neospora caninum versus Brucella spp. exposure among dairy cattle in Ethiopia: a case control study.

This case-control study aimed at assessing the relative association of Neospora caninum and Brucella species exposure with reproductive disorders. The study was carried out between October 2011 and June 2012 on 731 dairy cows sampled from 150 dairy farms in selected 17 conurbations of Ethiopia. Two hundred sixty-six of the cows were categorized as cases based on their history of abortion or stillbirth while the remaining 465 were controls. The presence of antibody to N. caninum was screened using indirect ELISA, while Brucella spp. exposure was assayed serially using Rose Bengal Plate Test and Complement Fixation Test. Exposure to N. caninum was more frequently observed among cases (23.8%) than controls (12.7%), while no significant difference (p > 0.05) was noted for Brucella exposure between the two groups. Moreover, the proportion of cows with disorders like retention of fetal membrane, endometritis and increased inter-calving period were significantly higher (p < 0.05) among Neospora seropositive cows. In conclusion, the finding discloses the strong association of N. caninum with reproductive disorders compared to Brucella spp. exposure. However, neither N. caninum nor Brucella spp. could explain the majority (73.2%) of the reported abortions and stillbirths in cattle. Hence, this observation underscores the need for more intensive investigation on the identification of causes of the aforementioned disorders in dairy cattle of Ethiopia.